TEST, MEASUREMENT & ASSESSMENT

TEST, MEASUREMENT & ASSESSMENT

TEST: It is a tool for Measurement. It consists set of Questions, administered during set of time.

MEASUREMENT: It is a process of Testing and consists Quantitative property. It belongs that how much aspect of the attributes measured.

ASSESSMENT: It is a process of Testing and Observing. It consists Quantitative & Qualitative  property. It is a continuous process. It belongs that how well aspect of the attributes assessed.

A test is an assessment intended to measure a test taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness etc. A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, or in a confined area that requires a test taker to physically perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. For example, in a closed book test, a test taker is often required to rely upon memory to respond to specific items whereas in an open book test, a test taker may use one or more supplementary tools such as a reference book or calculator when responding to an item. A test may be administered formally or informally. An example of an informal test would be a reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be a final examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I.Q. test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score. A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by statistical analysis of a large number of participants. An exam is meant to test a child's knowledge or willingness to give time to manipulate that subject.

A standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to ensure legal defensibility. Standardized tests are often used in education, professional certification, psychology , the military, and many other fields.

A non-standardized test is usually flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty and significance. Since these tests are usually developed by individual instructors, the format and difficulty of these tests may not be widely adopted or used by other instructors or institutions. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the proficiency level of students, to motivate students to study, and to provide feedback to students. In some instances, a teacher may develop non-standardized tests that resemble standardized tests in scope, format, and difficulty for the purpose of preparing their students for an upcoming standardized test. Finally, the frequency and setting by which a non-standardized tests are administered are highly variable and are usually constrained by the duration of the class period. A class instructor may for example, administer a test on a weekly basis or just twice a semester. Depending on the policy of the instructor or institution, the duration of each test itself may last for only five minutes to an entire class period.

A test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the developer of the test may not be directly responsible for its administration. For example, Educational Testing Service (ETS), a nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization, develops standardized tests such as the SAT but may not directly be involved in the administration or proctoring of these tests. As with the development and administration of educational tests, the format and level of difficulty of the tests themselves are highly variable and there is no general consensus or invariable standard for test formats and difficulty. Often, the format and difficulty of the test is dependent upon the educational philosophy of the instructor, subject matter, class size, policy of the educational institution, and requirements of accreditation or governing bodies. In general, tests developed and administered by individual instructors are non-standardized whereas tests developed by testing organizations are standardized.

IMPORTANT OF TEST

Testing in school is usually done for purposes of assessment, to assign students grades (from tests in classrooms) or rank them in terms of abilities. (in standardized tests). Yet tests can serve other purposes in educational settings that greatly improve performance.

1.      The testing effect: retrieval aids later retention

2.      Testing identifies gaps in knowledge

3.      Testing causes students to learn more from the next learning episode

4.     Testing produces better organization of knowledge

5.      Testing improves transfer of knowledge to new contexts

6.     Testing can facilitate retrieval of information that was not tested

7.     Testing improves metacognitive monitoring

8.     Testing prevents interference from prior material when  learning new material

9.     Testing provides feedback to instructors

10.  Frequent testing encourages students to study

PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT:

1.      To assist student learning.

2.      To identify students’ strengths and weaknesses.

3.      To assess the effectiveness of a particular instructional strategy.

4.      To assess and improve the effectiveness of curriculum programs.

5.       To assess and improve teaching effectiveness.

6.      To provide data that assist in decision making.

STATISTICS: Meaning & Uses

STATISTICS: Meaning & Uses

The practice or science of collecting and analysing numerical data in large quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those in a representative sample. Statistics is branch of mathematics concerned with  C²IA  i.e Collection, Classification, Interpretation & Analysis of numerical facts, for drawing inferences on the basis of their quantifiable likelihood (probability).It can interpret aggregates of data too large to be intelligible by ordinary observation because such data (unlike individual quantities) tend to behave in regular, predictable manner. It is subdivided into descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

USES OF STATISTICS:

Statistics plays a vital role in every fields of human activity. It  has important role in determining the existing position of per capita income, unemployment, population growth rate, housing, schooling medical facilities etc in a country. Now statistics holds a central position in almost every field like Industry, Commerce, Trade, Physics, Chemistry, Economics, Mathematics, Biology, Botany, Psychology, Astronomy etc, so application of statistics is very wide. Now we discuss some important fields in which statistics is commonly applied.

1.      In the field of  Business:

Statistics play an important role in business. A successful businessman must be very quick and accurate in decision making. He knows that what his customers wants, he should therefore, know what to produce and sell and in what quantities. Statistics helps businessman to plan production according to the taste of the costumers, the quality of the products can also be checked more efficiently by using statistical methods. So all the activities of the businessman based on statistical information. He can make correct decision about the location of business, marketing of the products, financial resources etc.

2.      In the field of  Economics:

Statistics play an important role in economics. Economics largely depends upon statistics. National income accounts are multipurpose indicators for the economists and administrators. Statistical methods are used for preparation of these accounts. In economics research statistical methods are used for collecting and analysis the data and testing hypothesis. The relationship between supply and demands is studies by statistical methods, the imports and exports, the inflation rate, the per capita income are the problems which require good knowledge of statistics.

3.      In the field of  Banking:

Statistics play an important role in banking. The banks make use of statistics for a number of purposes. The banks work on the principle that all the people who deposit their money with the banks do not withdraw it at the same time. The bank earns profits out of these deposits by lending to others on interest. The bankers use statistical approaches based on probability to estimate the numbers of depositors and their claims for a certain day.

4.      In the field of  State Management (Administration):

Statistics is essential for a country. Different policies of the government are based on statistics. Statistical data are now widely used in taking all administrative decisions. Suppose if the government wants to revise the pay scales of employees in view of an increase in the living cost, statistical methods will be used to determine the rise in the cost of living. Preparation of federal and provincial government budgets mainly depends upon statistics because it helps in estimating the expected expenditures and revenue from different sources. So statistics are the eyes of administration of the state.

5.      In the field of  Accounting and Auditing:

Accounting is impossible without exactness. But for decision making purpose, so much precision is not essential the decision may be taken on the basis of approximation, know as statistics. The correction of the values of current asserts is made on the basis of the purchasing power of money or the current value of it.

In auditing sampling techniques are commonly used. An auditor determines the sample size of the book to be audited on the basis of error.

6.      In the field of  Natural and Social Sciences:

Statistics plays a vital role in almost all the natural and social sciences. Statistical methods are commonly used for analyzing the experiments results, testing their significance in Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Meteorology, Research chambers of commerce, Sociology, Business, Public Administration, Communication and Information Technology etc.

7.      In the field of  Astronomy:

Astronomy is one of the oldest branches of statistical study; it deals with the measurement of distance, sizes, masses and densities of heavenly bodies by means of observations. During these measurements errors are unavoidable so most probable measurements are founded by using statistical methods.

Example: This distance of moon from the earth is measured. Since old days the astronomers have been statistical methods like method of least squares for finding the movements of stars.

8.      In the field of  Research: Statistics plays a vital role in Researches. For example it can used as in data collection, analysis. Interpretation , explanation and presentation. Use of statistics will guide researchers in research for proper characterization, summarization. Presentation,  interpretation of the result of research. Statistics provides a platform to  for research as to ; How to go about our research, either to consider a sample or the whole population, the Techniques to use in data collection and observation, how to go about the data description by the using of measures of central tendency like Mean , Median, Mode etc. To finding the test by using T test,  Chi square, ANOVA etc.

The Hidden Curriculum

The Hidden  Curriculum

That which is implied by the very structure and nature of schools, much of what revolves around daily or established routines. the "hidden curriculum," which refers to the kinds of learning children derive from the very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as from the behaviors and attitudes of teachers and administrators -Longstreet and Shane .

Hidden curriculum refers to the unwritten, unofficial, and often unintended lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in school. While the “formal” curriculum consists of the courses, lessons, and learning activities students participate in, as well as the knowledge and skills educators intentionally teach to students, the hidden curriculum consists of the unspoken or implicit academic, social, and cultural messages that are communicated to students while they are in school.

The hidden-curriculum concept is based on the recognition that students absorb lessons in school that may or may not be part of the formal course of study—for example, how they should interact with peers, teachers, and other adults; how they should perceive different races, groups, or classes of people; or what ideas and behaviors are considered acceptable or unacceptable. The hidden curriculum is described as “hidden” because it is usually unacknowledged or unexamined by students, educators, and the wider community. And because the values and lessons reinforced by the hidden curriculum are often the accepted status quo, it may be assumed that these “hidden” practices and messages don’t need to change—even if they are contributing to undesirable behaviors and results, whether it’s bullying, conflicts, or low graduation and college-enrollment rates, for example.

It should be noted that a hidden curriculum can reinforce the lessons of the formal curriculum, or it can contradict the formal curriculum, revealing hypocrisies or inconsistencies between a school’s stated mission, values, and convictions and what students actually experience and learn while they are in school. For example, a school may publicly claim in its mission or vision statement that it’s committed to ensuring that all students succeed academically, but a review of its performance data may reveal significant racial or socioeconomic discrepancies when it comes to test scores, graduation rates, and other measures of success. And because what is not taught in school can sometimes be as influential or formative as what is taught, the hidden curriculum also extends to subject areas, values, and messages that are omitted from the formal curriculum and ignored, overlooked, or disparaged by educators.

While the hidden curriculum in any given school encompasses an enormous variety of potential intellectual, social, cultural, and environmental factors—far too many to extensively catalog here—the following examples will help to illustrate the concept and how it might play out in schools:

·         Cultural values: The values promoted by schools, educators, and peer groups, such as cliques, may also convey hidden messages. For example, some schools may expect and reward conformity while punishing nonconformity, whereas other schools might celebrate and even encourage nonconformity. In one school, students may learn that behaviors such as following the rules, acting in expected ways, and not questioning adults are rewarded, while in other schools students learn that personal expression, taking initiative, or questioning authority are valued and rewarded behaviors. Similarly, if biased or prejudicial behaviors and statements are tolerated in a school, students may embrace the values that are accepted or modeled—either explicitly or implicitly—by adults and other students.

·         Curricular topics: The subjects that teachers choose for courses and lessons may convey different ideological, cultural, or ethical messages. For example, the history of the United States may be taught in a wide variety of ways using different historical examples, themes, and perspectives. A teacher may choose to present the history of the world or the United States from the perspective of the European settlers and explorers, or she may choose to present it from the perspective of displaced Native Americans or colonized African and Asian peoples. In the first case, teaching American history from a strictly Eurocentric perspective would likely minimize or ignore the history and suffering of Native Americans (a common educational practice in past decades). Curricular topics may also often intersect with, or be influenced by, political, ideological, and moral differences that are broadly contentious in American society—e.g., teaching evolution in science courses, multiculturalism in social studies, or sex education in health courses.

·         Teaching strategies: The way that schools and teachers choose to educate students can convey both intentional and unintended messages. For example, if students earn good grades or extra credit for turning in homework on time, listening attentively, participating during class, raising their hands, and generally doing things they are told to do, the students may learn that compliance is important and that certain behaviors will be academically rewarded and allowed to compensate for learning deficiencies. On the other hand, instructional strategies such as project-based learning or community-based learning, to name just two of many possible options, may communicate specific messages—for example, that skills such as critical thinking and problem solving, and attributes such as persistence, resourcefulness, and self-motivation, are valued and important (in the case of project-based learning) or that being informed about and involved in local issues are valued and important (in the case of community-based learning).

·         School structures: The way that a school or academic program is organized and operated can convey messages to students. For example, if non-English-speaking students are largely separated from their peers for most of the school day, or students with physical or learning disabilities are enrolled in specialized programs that are relegated to windowless classrooms in the basement, these organizational decisions may have unintended effects on the students’ sense of cultural belonging, self-worth, or academic potential. In addition, the structure of a school program can also mirror or reinforce cultural biases or prejudices. For example, students of color and students from lower-income households are often disproportionately represented in lower-level courses, and special-education programs may inadvertently reinforce some of the social stigmas that children and adults with disabilities experience outside of school.

·         Institutional rules: The formal rules in a school may communicate a wide variety of intentional and unintentional messages to students. For example, some schools require students to wear school uniforms, some ban certain types of attire (short skirts, clothing with images and language considered to be inappropriate), and others have very liberal or permissive clothing policies. While the intent of formal school rules and policies is to tell students how they are expected to behave, the degree to which they are enforced or unenforced, or the ways in which they are enforced, may communicate messages the undermine or contradict their stated intent. In this case, stricter dress-code policies may communicate that students will be judged on appearances both inside and outside of school, while looser policies might communicate that they will be judged on other qualities.

Reform

Generally speaking, the concept of a hidden curriculum in schools has become more widely recognized, discussed, and addressed by school leaders and educators in recent decades. Ideas such as “white privilege,” equity, voice, and multicultural education—to name just a few—have arguably led to greater tolerance, understanding, and even celebration of racial,cultural. physical, and cognitive differences in public schools. In addition, school communities, educators, and students are more likely than in past decades to actively and openly reflect on or question their own assumptions, biases, and tendencies, either individually or as a part of a formal school policy, program, or instructional activity. For example, topics such a bullying and diversity are now regularly discussed in public schools, and academic lessons, assignments, readings, and materials are now more likely to include multicultural perspectives, topics, and examples. Political and social pressures, including factors such as the increased scrutiny that has resulted from online media and social networking, may also contribute to greater awareness of unintended lessons and messages in schools. For example, harmful, hurtful, or unhealthy student behaviors are now regularly surfaced on social-networking sites such as Facebook or Twitter, which often leads to greater awareness of student behaviors or social trends.

That said, a “hidden curriculum” is, by nature, obscured or unacknowledged, which means that many of its lessons and messages are difficult to perceive or measure for any number of reasons. For example, long-standing policies may become so deeply embedded in a school culture that people simply forget to question them, or a school faculty that prides itself on celebrating multicultural diversity may find it emotionally difficult to acknowledge and openly discuss behaviors that might contradict that self-perceived identity. For this reason, every school will always have some form of hidden curriculum.

Instructional Materials:

Instructional Materials 

Instructional Materials : It is also known as Teaching Learning Materials (TLM) are any collection of materials including   animate and inanimate objects and human and non-human resources that a teacher may use in teaching and learning situations to help achieve desired learning objectives. Instructional materials may aid a student in concretizing a learning experience so as to make learning more exciting, interesting and interactive. They are tools used in instructional activities, which include active learning and assessment. The term encompasses all the materials and physical means an instructor might use to implement instruction and facilitate student’s achievement of instructional objectives.

Challenges:

Ø Educators skilled in the use of technology for learning

Ø  Content standards and curriculum resources

Ø Student-centered approaches to learning

Ø  Assessment of the effectiveness of technology for learning

Ø  Technical assistance for maintaining and using technology resources

Ø  Community partners who provide expertise, support, and   real-life interactions.

Classification of Instructional Materials

Prints	Textbooks, pamphlets, handouts, study guides, manuals
Audio	cassettes, microphone
Visuals	Charts, real objects, photographs, transparencies
Audiovisuals	Slides, tapes, films, filmstrips, television, video, multimedia
Electronic Interactive	Computers, graphing calculators, tablets

Advantages:

Ø Relevance: Materials can be produced that are directly relevant to students’ and institutional needs and that reflect local content, issues, and concerns.

Ø Develop expertise: Developing materials can help develop expertise among staff, giving them a greater understanding of the characteristics of effective materials.

Ø Reputation: Institutionally prepared materials may enhance the reputation of the institution by demonstrating its commitment to providing materials specifically for its students.

Ø Flexibility: Materials produced within the institution can be revised or adapted as needed, giving them greater flexibility than a commercial course book.

Disadvantages:

• Cost: Quality materials take time to produce and adequate staff time as well as resources need to be allocated.
• Quality: Teacher-made materials will not normally have the same standard of design and production as commercial materials and hence may not present the same image as commercial materials.
• Training: To prepare teachers for materials writing projects, adequate training is necessary. Materials  writing is a specialized skill and not all teachers area capable of writing good materials.

Relationship between Curriculum & Instruction , teaching , learning

Relationship  between Curriculum & Instruction

The definition of instruction and curriculum is subjective. Both curriculum and instruction may take on different meanings based on the purpose or interpretation whether political, social, or educational. Curriculum is what is taught in schools, instruction is how curriculum is delivered and learning is what knowledge or skill has been acquired. The most common definition of curriculum is based on overt curriculum which supports an intentional instructional agenda of an educational institute   Furthermore, curriculum is the content of what is being taught and instruction is the implementation of teaching according academic curriculum.

The relationship between curriculum and instruction is intimate. The relationship being so intimate that curriculum and instruction is often said as though the terms are one word. We may describe the relationship between curriculum and instruction as a parent and child relationship. Curriculum takes the role of a parent who is independent and may function without instruction; whereas, academic instruction is inherently dependent upon curriculum—much like a child is dependent upon a parent. Curriculum provides direction for instruction since instruction is the method of delivering academic curriculum. Instruction may exist without curriculum but would serve no direct purpose. Curriculum and instruction must be compatible and maintain a close relationship in order to maximize student learning. The design of curriculum influences student learning. Curriculum is a vessel that helps learners gain knowledge, develop skills and broaden understanding and has outcomes that may be measured . Instruction, on the other hand, is as capricious as an unpredictable child. The design of instruction is influenced by an educator’s philosophy and instructional beliefs. Instruction design is developed according to curriculum but maintains individuality while being dependent upon curriculum and standards. The prioritization of information found in overt curriculum and what instruction techniques are used is reflected by a teacher’s philosophy. Teachers are individuals composed of different biases, attitudes, and personal philosophy—this human element plays a role in instructional practices. Teachers instruct according to their personal philosophy. Curriculum and instructional design alters according to society and is influenced by new technology and information. The parent-child relationship of curriculum and instruction suggests opportunity for growth as both the parent and child learn from each other. Knowledge of the relationship between curriculum and instruction may help educators strive to provide a quality education to students.

The Art and Science of Teaching :

 Teaching effectively requires the skill of a knowledgeable and experienced educator. An understanding of  the definition of teaching aids the educator by providing perspective on different teaching approaches. Teaching can be convincingly debated  as being an art or a science or defined collectively as an art and a science. The different approaches and ways to teach make teaching an art but the necessary knowledge of the material being taught also makes teaching a science. To properly assess the full spectrum of approaches which teaching encompasses, it is important to understand the different concepts concerning and defining teaching as an art and a science. 

 Teaching as a Science:

 Science refers to skills and knowledge that are uniform and structured. The science of teaching is also in reference to the credentials and qualifications of the teacher. Standards are scientific as they are used to represent an absolute. Standards used to test a teacher’s knowledge and ability is based upon pre-determined criteria. The tests to determine aptitude have the standards and criteria down to a science. However, such criteria  does not calculate the teacher’s individual personality traits and ability based on the attitude and character of the instructor. A teacher with knowledge might not be able to reach students as effectively as one who, although less knowledgeable, is entertaining and witty. However, the science knowledge aspect of teaching might also represent a specific learned skill. An instructor’s teaching portfolio is another example of  how teaching is also a science. The term “portfolio” is often used by artists to represent a collection of an artist’s noted works that give evidence of the artist’s skills, ability and talent. Likewise, an instructor’s portfolio is a collection of samples that demonstrates the teacher’s knowledge, skills and ability

Teaching as an Art : In teaching, as in art, there is no consistency. Teaching performance is based on competence for a variety of genres besides scholastic subjects such as narration, computers, dance, drama, instrumental music, and art. How a subject is being taught is directly related to the effectiveness of the lesson. Teaching requires intuition which is ideally described as an art  In art, individualism and expression are the norm. As in teaching, there are numerous styles and approaches on teaching. The attributes that make a teacher effective and able to reach the students might be unique to the individual. A certain disposition and one’s individual way of expression, such traits are difficult to duplicate. A knowledgeable educator might not necessarily be an effective educator since it is often the personal attributes of the educator that capture the attention of the student

Interpretation, perception and reception of  information suggest that not only teaching but learning also is an art and a science. Individual learning styles are often unconsciously used as teaching styles by educators. If the class is comprised of kinesthetic or tactile learners, and the instructor is a visual learner, then the instructor is more likely to teach visually rather than kinesthetically or tactually. Teaching styles are affected by individual perception and internalized knowledge.

Our opinion, although teaching is both an art and a science, the art aspect of teaching is more evident in modern teaching strategies. Technology and different teaching styles share the same purpose of trying to maintain the student’s attention and interest. To motive the class and keep the students interested in learning is a challenge. Students need to be taught to be involved in their own learning. Distractions and lack of attention in the class prevents students from obtaining their learning potential.

TEXTBOOK

TEXTBOOK

The textbook is a book used as a standard source of information for formal study of a subject and an instrument for teaching and learning .It should be regarded as one of the many sources teachers can draw upon in creating an effective lesson and may offer a framework of guidance and orientation. Additionally, the textbook provides confidence and security for an inexperienced teacher who finds adapting existing textbooks challenging especially for tailored work related courses. It is necessary to emphasize that no ready-made textbook will ever fit perfectly every language program. There is no ideal textbook, ideal for every teacher, ideal for every group of learners and ideal in every teaching situation. Moreover, teachers’ reactions to using ready-made textbooks are manifold. Many teachers are required to use textbooks and are bound to the textbook in its existing form. Since this simplifies class preparation for teachers, this is acceptable for some teachers who eventually begin to over-rely on textbooks and decide to follow the textbook closely, making no or only small essential changes and additions. On the other hand, some teachers reject the textbook approach to learning and wish to make substantial changes to the textbook they need to use. Adapting a textbook to fit actual needs of a group of learners is a demanding and time-consuming process. Apart from lack of time and resources that majority of teachers state to be the main obstacles in adapting textbooks, teachers also need training and experience in modifying textbooks.

Ongoing assessment and decision making

STAGE 

1.     Planning how to teach with the text

2.     Teaching with the text

3.     Re-planning how to teach

4.      Reteaching

Advantages and disadvantages of using textbooks :

Advantages

The following list contains the most frequently stated advantages of using textbooks ,

 • It provides a syllabus for the course because the authors of the syllabus have made decisions about what will be learned and in what order.

• It provides security for the students because they have a kind of a road map of the course: they know what to expect and they know what is expected from them.

• It provides a set of visuals, activities, readings, etc., and so saves the teacher time in finding or developing such materials.

• It provides teachers with a basis for assessing students’ learning. Some textbooks include tests or evaluation tools.

• It may include supporting materials (teacher’s guide, cd, worksheets, and video.)

• It provides consistency within a program across a given level, if all teachers use the same textbook.

Disadvantages:

 If textbooks follow a sequence, as within a series, it provides consistency between levels. Textbooks also have limitations, which can lead to teachers’ and learners’ dissatisfaction with the course. The following list contains the most frequently stated disadvantages of using only ready-made textbooks

• The content or examples may  not be relevant or appropriate to the group and they may not reflect the students’ needs since textbooks are often written for global markets and often do not reflect the interests and needs of students.

• They may contain inauthentic language, since texts, dialogs and other aspects of content tend to be

specially written to incorporate teaching points and are often not representative of real language use.

 • The content may not be at the right level.

Conclusion:

 Textbooks give a great contribution in the teaching learning process both to the teachers and to learners. They offer a framework of guidance and orientation. However, apart from numerous advantages a single textbook frequently does not meet diverse needs of the learners. This generates a need for textbook adaptation at the activity, unit and syllabus levels. Adapting provides teachers with an opportunity to make a greater use of their professional skills and for learners to be involved in the learning process.