Scientific Theory
A scientific theory is a structure or systematic scheme
conceived by the human imagination, to explain regularities in empirical data.
A "scientific theory" differs from a “scientific fact” or a
“scientific law” in that a theory attempts to explain "why" or
"how": a “fact” is a simple, basic observation, whereas a “law” is a
statement (often a mathematical equation) about a relationship between facts.
For example, Newton’s Law of Gravity is a mathematical equation that can be
used to predict the attraction between bodies, but it is not a “theory” to
explain how gravity works. stephen jay Gould wrote that "...facts and
theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing
certainty. Facts are the world's data. Theories are structures of ideas that
explain and interpret facts.
Theories
are explanations of a natural or social behavior, event, or phenomenon. More
formally, a scientific theory is a system of constructs (concepts) and
propositions (relationships between those constructs) that collectively
presents a logical, systematic, and coherent explanation of a phenomenon of
interest within some assumptions and boundary conditions (Bacharach
1989).
A theory may be characterized as a
postulational system (a set of premises) from which empirical laws are
deducible as theorems.
Thus, it can have an abstract logical form, with axioms, formation rules, and rules for drawing deductions from the axioms as
well as definitions for empirically interpreting its symbols. In practice,
however, theories are seldom Correspondence principle, philosophical
guideline for the selection of new theories in physical science, requiring that they explain all the phenomena for which a preceding
theory was valid. Formulated in 1923 by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr,
this principle is a distillation of the thought that had led him in the
development of his atomic theory, an early form of quantum mechanics. structured so carefully.
Components of
Scientific theory
(1) careful observation or experiments,
(2) reports of regularities, and
(3) systematic explanatory schemes (theories).
The statements of
regularities, if accurate, may be taken as empirical laws
expressing continuing relationships among the objects or characteristics
observed. Thus, when empirical laws are able to satisfy curiosity by uncovering
an orderliness in the behaviour of objects or events, the scientist may advance
a systematic scheme, or scientific theory, to provide an accepted explanation
of why these laws obtain.
Importance
of scientific theory:
There
are many benefits to using theories in research.
I.
Theories
provide the underlying logic of the occurrence of natural or social phenomenon
by explaining what are the key drivers and key outcomes of the target
phenomenon and why, and what underlying processes are responsible driving that
phenomenon.
II.
They aid in sense-making by helping us synthesize
prior empirical findings within a theoretical framework and reconcile
contradictory findings by discovering contingent factors influencing the
relationship between two constructs in different studies.
III.
Theories provide guidance for future research by
helping identify constructs and relationships that are worthy of further
research.
IV.
Theories can contribute to cumulative knowledge
building by bridging gaps between other theories and by causing existing
theories to be re-evaluated in a new light.
Limitations
However,
theories can also have their own share of limitations. As simplified
explanations of reality, theories may not always provide adequate explanations
of the phenomenon of interest based on a limited set of constructs and
relationships. Theories are designed to be simple and parsimonious
explanations, while reality may be significantly more complex. Furthermore,
theories may impose blinders or limit researchers’ “range of vision,” causing
them to miss out on important concepts that are not defined by the theory.
Characteristics:
- Testable: Theories can be supported through a series
of scientific research projects or experiments. Sometimes a theory is
proven to be wrong through evidence: this is called rejecting a theory.
However, a theory can never be proven to be absolutely true because it is
an interpretation. There is always the possibility that a different
interpretation will someday be found to be more correct.
- Replicable: In other words, theories must also be able
to be repeated by others. This means that enough information and data must
be available in the theory so that others can test the theory and get
similar results.
- Stable: Another characteristic of theories is that
they must be stable. This means that when others test the theory, they get
the same results - so a theory is valid as long as there is no evidence to
dispute it.
- Simple: A theory should be simple. When we say a
scientific theory must be simple, we don't mean that the concept must be basic.
We mean that only useful, relevant information should be presented in the
theory.
- Consistent: A theory should agree with other theories,
meaning that no principles in one theory should contradict another already
accepted theory. However, some differences may be evident because the new
theory may provide additional evidence.
Application:
The
scientific method is critical to the development of scientific theories, which explain empirical (experiential) laws in a
scientifically rational manner. In a typical application of the scientific
method, a researcher develops a hypothesis, tests it through various means, and then modifies the
hypothesis on the basis of the outcome of the tests and experiments. The
modified hypothesis is then retested, further modified, and tested again, until
it becomes consistent with observed phenomena and testing outcomes. In this
way, hypotheses serve as tools by which scientists gather data.
From that data and the many different scientific investigations undertaken to
explore hypotheses, scientists are able to develop broad general explanations,
or scientific theories.
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